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Key Concepts of Electronic Performance Support Systems
Key Concepts of Electronic Performance Support Systems
What is an Electronic Performance Support System?
By Barry Raybould
Reprinted from Technical & Skills Training February/March 1996
What is an Electronic Performance Support System?
EPSS
(Electronic Performance Support Systems) are systems that provide
employees with the information, advice and learning experiences they
need to get up to speed as quickly as possible and with the minimum of
support from other people.
An
EPSS also provides the electronic infrastructure that captures, stores
and distributes knowledge throughout an organization to enable it to
learn faster than its competitors.
The
performance support approach is rapidly spreading throughout the
professional training community as a alternative approach to training,
and is offering a new set of interface design principles for
professionals in the human computer interface design community.
Two Flavors of EPSS
By Barry Raybould
Reprinted from Technical & Skills Training February/March 1996
There are two types of EPSS:
Stand alone
Stand
alone systems are independent of larger databases or networks of
computers that that exist in an organization, but provide workers with
information they need to do specific tasks. Some examples:
a trouble shooting EPSS that helps service technicians identify and repair
equipment
a human resources EPSS that provides information and advice needed to ensure HR
policies comply with applicable laws
an operations EPSS that helps machine operators set up equipment on the factory
floor for optimum working conditions
Embedded
In
an embedded EPSS, a software application becomes the EPSS. There is no
distinction between the performance support system and the software
application. The software interface is designed in such a way that it
provides the necessary guidance through the work tasks and delivers the
appropriate information and advice when, where, and how the worker
needs it. In this type of EPSS, the EPSS designer (performance support
engineer) and the software developer work closely together to design
the software interface. Some examples are:
a
system used by customer support representatives that helps them take
and track customer orders. The software supports the process by
providing a road map of the key steps, with relevant advice and
guidance for each step, and provides assistance with searching for
answers to questions commonly asked by customers.
a
production management manufacturing system to help manufacturing
engineers plan and schedule production. The system structures the
planning system, providing background conceptual knowledge on key
planning concepts integrated with step - by - step instructions for
creating a manufacturing schedule.
Attributes and Behavior of Performance Centered Sytems
by Gloria Gery
The Need:
Describing,
defining and specifying performance centered systems requires precise
language. Evaluating software to determine how performance focused it
is requires specific criteria against which to compare the software in
question.
The Chart:
This
chart, Attributes and Behavior of Performance Centered Systems,
summarizes the characteristics of performance centered systems and
provides descriptive criteria against which to either specify or
evaluate requirements. The attributes themselves are listed in the
first column. The 1, 3 and 5 point scale indicates the degree to which
these attributes are required or implemented. Level 1 indicates a low
level of implementation or representation of the attribute; Level 3 an
intermediate degree; and Level 5 a high level of implementation.
Rule of Thumb:
The
more of these attributes evidenced by the software and the higher the
level of representation of the attribute, the more powerful the
software in generating performance.
Using the Chart:
Specification:
List the required attributes and the degree to which the attribute
should be implemented. When possible use examples from other software
to illustrate the characteristics and behavior. Institutionalize the
requirements into functional specifications.
Evaluation:
Construct
a grid listing the attributes and include empty cells for the degree of
implementation. Observe the software and how it does or does not
reflect the terms in the master chart. Put a rating for the attribute
(i.e. 1, 3 or 5). Construct a mathematical average and obtain a
quantitative assessment of how performance centered the software is.
Add descriptive sentences within the cells to describe the
implementation. Cite specific displays, dialogs, systems messages and
support resources.
|
Attribute or Behavior
|
Low Representation
1
|
Intermediate Representation
3
|
High Representation
5
|
|
Creates a "big picture". Provides an overall context for the process, work or
activity.
|
Provides
little or no visual, graphic, animated or narrative representation of
the overall process, deliverables or outcomes. Performer must maintain
understanding of context, process and their point in process.
|
Provides
access to extrinsic information about overall process, but maintains
little or no context within the interface itself. No context sensitive
information about point in process (e.g. "you are here") or summary of
prior choices. Performer must maintain process orientation in their
head.
May employ visual process maps, diagrams, maps, graphs, flowcharts, etc., but
no as the primary workspace. Performer must
reference
these resources as opposed to
work
in these processes.
|
Includes
explicit and complete representation of the context (e.g. process,
equipment, facility) and what will be necessary to complete it within
or immediately accessible from primary displays. Rich representation of
the work context or process, possibly including multi-media
representations. Summarizes previous choices.
Includes significant advance organization of expectations, steps, deliverables.
In 3-D or virtual representations of the task, equipment, or workspace,
performers work
within
the context.
|
|
Establish and maintain a work context.
|
Not
task oriented. Presents itself as "software". Employs technical rather
than work language. No task orientation, cueing or structuring.
Requires performer to make mental connections between the software and
the work context, task or deliverables.
|
Employs
some task language or representative metaphors to establish work
context. Low to moderate fidelity to actual work context.
May employ some multimedia in metaphors and objects.
|
Task
centered. Employs task language and metaphors to establish a
psychological work context. Results in perception or feeling of "doing
work" rather than being in "software.
|
|
Aid goal establishment.
|
Performer
must generate goals prior to interacting with software; must know
options and the relationship between options and goals and where and
when to execute them.
|
Presents
either some specific or general goals to stimulate performer
interaction from within the interface. May provide detailed information
about goals within extrinsic support researches such as manuals,
instruction, Help.
Goal states may be presented in multimedia objects or models to serve as points
of comparison for the performer.
|
Presents
explicit goal options from within primary displays. Employs dialogs
(e.g. "What do you want to do...) and presents initial and progressive
options for selection Both overall and context specific goal
establishment are supported. May provides intrinsic or extrinsic
resource to help performer compare and contrast goal options and/or
consequences.
In rich 3-D or virtual environments, goals and models of desired outcomes might
be represented.
|
|
Structure work process
|
Provides little or no overall summary of recommended or possible work process.
Any work process information resides in extrinsic or external resource.
Performer must initiate all process orientation.
|
Provides overall and detailed process information in extrinsic or external
resources.
May summarize
results to date
in visual or text summary form.
May employ some multimedia
|
Establishes
and maintains overall process definition within or immediately
accessible from interface. May employee process maps as primary task
orientation using button bars, process maps, etc. Cues performer to
position in and/or completion of process steps or milestones via
differentiating factors such as color.
In
rich 3-D or virtual environments, performers may be led to the space
and images that represent the conditions, problems, requirements,
models or examples or demonstrations of best practice.
|
|
Structure progression through tasks and logic
|
Depends
on performer to generate and structure task requirements and
progression through proper task sequence. No system initiated task
sequencing or presentation of relevant data or tools. Rules and
relationships reside in performer memory or must be accessed from
extrinsic or external resource before and during task progression.
|
Provides
some task structuring -- most often in the form of information
contained in extrinsic resources (e.g. procedures, demonstrations,
process maps).
Employs
menu structures for task structuring, but performer must generate
sequence. Irrelevant options may be dimmed on menus, lists, etc.
May actively present guidance or suggestions.
May employ some multimedia.
|
Following
goal establishment the system structures task requirements in proper or
best known task or process sequence from within the interface. Guides
performer through appropriate options, choices, inputs. Filters
irrelevant steps or options out. Via edits, models and examples
observation and advice, does not permit wasted activities or
inappropriate sequencing that will result in cycle repetition or dead
ends. Presents relevant data and powerful representations of data,
conditions, equipment, etc. at appropriate times during task sequence.
Performer led to successful task completion or deliverable creation.
All aspects of work are supported including job task, system interaction,
cognitive and verbal tasks are supported.
Provides
on-demand access to overall process or sequence information within
extrinsic resources (e.g. procedures, process maps, coaches or demos)
In
rich 3-D or virtual environments, performers are presented with more
robust representations of the data, conditions, examples,. or external
knowledge resources.
|
|
Reinforce and link activity to business strategy
|
No
implicit or explicit content, functionality, advice or process
reinforces or links to organizational strategy. Any relationship
between behavior and strategy must be constructed by the performer.
|
Loose
or indirect reference to strategy is based in optional activities or is
referred to in extrinsic support system content. Business rules into
system logic relate primarily to data manipulation, transformation and
representation -- not business practice or standard operating policy.
When business strategy is incorporated into system logic it remains
stable between major system releases.
|
Business
or organizational strategy and goals are reinforced through advice,
options, or underlying logic which incorporates business rules expected
to produce strategic results.
Responsible parties alter system logic to reflect new strategy or business
goals as it is changed.
Strategic information is available within extrinsic resources.
|
|
Institutionalize current best approach.
|
Interaction
and process are data driven. If tasks are supported from within the
display or described in extrinsic resource, the approach is frozen in
time as of the construction date. No changes are made other than during
major release changes or revisions. Content may be very discrepant with
current known information or process.
|
Business
task, content, data, process or rule changes are distributed to
performers in analog or electronic announcements, meetings, and
informally. Changes are not institutionalized within the applications,
except via major system version changes. Time lags exist between
surfacing of change needs and performers incorporating those changes
into their behavior.
Individual
performance changes are a function of the performer receiving and
incorporating the changes into their behavior without structure or
guidance from the application.
|
Support for task progression or cognitive processing reflects most current and
best known approach or content.
Task
sequence, content, data, rules and tools are continuously updated and
dynamic. Individual learning systematically feeds the system to
translate current experience and learnings into organizational practice.
Responsible parties alter system logic to reflect new knowledge.
Performers
have ongoing interaction with experts via Groupware, forums, or
bulletin boards. Computer supported collaborative work is actively
employed and encouraged or required via context sensitive links and
communications to appropriate people when limited resource o content is
available to support processing, creative or knowledge development.
In
rich multimedia, 3-D or virtual environments progression is through
more realistic space with powerful models and examples, etc.
|
|
Reflect natural work situations.
|
Interface
language, metaphors, behaviors or options bear little or no
relationship to the real work, world or performer expectations or
experience. Performers must adjust the way they think, interact and
behave to system requirements.
How to approach work requirements is not immediately obvious from within the
interface.
|
Partial
match between interface and natural work situations. Gaps exist in
language, appropriateness of the metaphors to situation or task,
sequence or other elements.
May employ some multimedia.
|
Language,
metaphors, behaviors, options, process, sequences and deliverables
conform to the way people communicate, interact, observe and behave.
Reality is modeled with multimedia, 3-D or virtual representations of
space, equipment, conditions and data.
Communication and interaction is concrete, colloquial, obvious and natural.
The match between work and the system is very close and approach and options
are obvious.
|
|
Use metaphors and direct manipulation of variables to capitalize on prior
learning and physical reality.
|
Displays
and content are data driven and use little or no visual representation
or metaphors. Performers must transform requirements into system terms
employing abstractions, codes or commands.
|
Some
use of metaphors, visualization or direct manipulation. Metaphorical or
visual content more likely to be resident in extrinsic resources rather
than in primary displays.
May employ some multimedia.
|
Extensive
use of metaphors and visual representation to construct familiar
realities and capitalize on prior learning. Direct manipulation of
objects employed to where physical movement of data, visual structures,
etc. match real-world tasks. Performers feel they are working in "real"
vs. abstracted space.
The
most advanced environments employ multimedia, 3-D or virtual
metaphorical space, objects and permit direct and powerful manipulation
of situational variables.
|
|
Provide alternative views of the application interface
|
One size fits all
interface. No options for more or less structure, alternative mode,
interaction type, or navigation. Performer diversity results in some
feeling inadequate and others feeling patronized or spoon fed (i.e.
little or too much structure).
|
Alternative
interface possible for some or all tasks or for limited differences in
amount of structure (e.g. some use of Wizards or Helpers vs. command or
menu-based interaction; or primary use of Wizard structure with some
key stroke bypass options.
May employ animations or sound.
|
Two
or more alternative interfaces presenting broad range of structure and
freedom. Alternatives may be based on different interaction modes (e.g.
blank page vs. templates vs. wizards/assistants), customization options
or expanded or collapsed view of the interface controlled by performer.
Alternate
interfaces may include alternative media representations (e.g. visual,
3-D or virtual versions of the workspace, objects, data, etc.
|
|
Provide alternative views of the support resources
|
Support
resources represented primarily in text mode with limited or no use of
other media, content organization or knowledge representation.
|
Some use of alternative knowledge representation within extrinsic support
resources or in primary displays.
May employ some media beyond text and simple visual objects or animations.
|
Rich and varied views of content and knowledge. Use of multiple knowledge
representation (e.g. textual procedure
and
demonstration
and
voice-narrated demonstration).
Advanced
applications employ multimedia, 3-D and/or virtual knowledge
representation within the interface to represent conditions, options,
etc. -- or within the extrinsic or external support resources.
|
|
Observe performer actions and data.
|
Observation of performer actions limited to edits of entered data.
|
Systems
sense some performer, data, physical, environmental, equipment or
system states and provides context-sensitive information. The more
"sensitive" the system, the more powerful the support.
|
Observes
and notes performer context, prior decisions, physical interaction with
system (e.g. mouse position, time delays, previous choices). Observes
relationships between performer, context, task, data and goals.
May employ visual, 3-D or virtual representations of resources tightly linked
to state, data or user conditions or preferences.
|
|
Provide contextual feedback.
|
Feedback is either generic, vague or non-existent; not linked to context,
performer actions, system behavior or data.
|
Feedback may be linked to one or more elements (e.g. data, point in process.)
|
Rich,
varied, explicit and continuous feedback related to performer actions,
data, task requirements, performer attributes. Anticipates performer
requirements and communicates actively about states, conditions,
results, requirements or options. May appear "intelligent".
Feedback may employ rich visual, auditory, 3-D or virtual feedback about
conditions, data, alternatives, etc.
|
|
Advise.
|
Provides no task or conditional advice in either primary displays or extrinsic
resource.
|
May provide advice through extrinsic support resource or through Advisor
components invoked by the performer.
Advisors may employ media beyond text.
|
Ongoing,
dynamic, rich and explicit system or performer -initiated advice.
Observes and monitors data, time, options or performer behavior and
provides conditional, rule-based or "learned" advice. Advice may be
information or directive.
Advice may include multimedia representations, examples, guidance,
demonstrations, practice exercises, etc.
|
|
Shows evidence of work progression
|
Performer must maintain conscious understanding of what has been done, choices
made and consequences and relationships.
|
System
presents some evidence on all task progression or conditions or
limited/in-depth evidence (e.g. images, time bars, narrative
descriptions) of accumulated choices and system-generated outcomes.
Some multimedia may be employed.
|
System
presents rich, continuous and in-depth evidence on all task progression
or conditions or limited/in-depth evidence (e.g. images, time bars,
narrative descriptions) of accumulated choices and system-generated
outcomes.
Task
progression may be represented with multimedia, 3-D or virtual
representations to provide clear understanding of rules, relationships,
conditions, outcomes, deliverables, etc.
|
|
Provide support resources without breaking the task context.
|
Support
resources are external to the system and require a complete context
change (e.g. signing off system and accessing on-line resource -- or
suspending interaction with the system to access manuals, training or
peer resource.
Accessing
support resource requires significant effort and/or time away from
task. Often, the effort required is greater than the payoff due to gaps
between resource content and performer needs.
|
Support
resources within HELP or Searchable Reference, but may not be
context-sensitive in any or all cases. Performers are clearly in
another space
when working with support resources (e.g. they are "in a training module).
Accessing resource often breaks the task or thought context.
Knowledge
may be represented in limited ways that are not faithful to the task of
physical workspace or equipment. Consequently, performers must
reconceptualize, transform or cognitively manipulate the content due to
low fidelity content representation, thereby breaking their task
context.
|
Context-sensitive
access to support resources. Support is organized in granular
structures or is written and displayed to conform to other system
display conventions. Sufficient support is embedded within or
immediately accessible from primary displays.
Resources
overlay the application or can be sized or minimized. While momentary
shifts between task performance and use of extrinsic resources, context
breaks are minor .
Rich
multimedia, multi-sensory, 3-D or virtual representations of knowledge
are available as primary or alternative resources. Representation
permit maintenance of task context because of high fidelity knowledge
representation.
|
|
Contain embedded knowledge in the interface
|
Any available knowledge resides in extrinsic resources.
|
Some directions, explanations or visualizations are in primary displays.
Rich and complete knowledge is included in extrinsic resources. Some multimedia
may be employed.
|
Extensive
and rich knowledge is contained in primary displays. Next steps are
expressed or demonstrated. Content may be displayed in multiple forms
(e.g. words and images).
Examples, instructions and guidance may be represented with multimedia, 3-D or
virtual reality.
|
|
Business knowledge available in support resources and system logic.
|
Business
knowledge is entirely external to the system and/or must be known by
the performer prior to interacting with the software.
|
Business knowledge resides primarily in extrinsic resources. May or may not be
rich knowledge representation.
Business knowledge typically must be learned by the performer in advance
(possibly
just in time
) and then applied to the task at hand.
Some multimedia may be employed.
|
Business
knowledge and rules incorporated into embedded knowledge in displays or
underlying system or programming logic. Rules and relationships between
data, tasks, goals, rules, concepts, requirements, etc. are tightly
coupled and explicit.
Learning
about the work or process is tightly coupled with doing and is often a
consequence rather than a pre-condition of performance.
Rules and relationships and data may employ multimedia , 3-D or virtual
representations.
|
|
System information contained in support resources
|
Help or other extrinsic resource is either limited in content or of inadequate
quality.
|
Information
about procedures, system structure and mental models, requirements,
options, etc. contained in support resources. Typically organized in
hierarchical structure. Not context sensitive. Must be invoked by
performer (who must know that they need help, how to phrase their
request, and how to execute their request).
Some multimedia may be employed.
|
Information on the system, procedures, etc. tightly coupled to task context and
available for context-sensitive access.
Knowledge representation is rich and complete and may employ multimedia, 3-D or
virtual representations.
|
|
Provide alternative knowledge search and navigation mechanisms.
|
One size fits all navigation (e.g. index or table of contents access; keyword
search access).
|
More than one search and navigation mechanism provided. May include context
sensitive access to some resources.
|
Numerous
search and navigation options available including hypertext, indexing,
keyword search, context sensitive links, "sounds like" queries,
browsing, VRML etc.
Users
may "browse", be guided, or directed through the content, data, space
or objects. May employ agents for searching, coaching, assessing, etc.
|
|
Layered.
|
Single view of interface, content or information.
What you see is what you get...
|
May provide layering via hypertext or hypermedia links within extrinsic
resources.
|
Multiple
levels of content, forms, interaction methods, feedback, advice, etc.
provided to accommodate performer diversity in prior knowledge, goals,
motivation, available time, and style.
|
|
Provide access to underlying logic.
|
The system presents its advice or executes tasks in response to tasks.
|
May
provide explanations of logic, rules or representation of decision tree
structure when requested by the performer. Content most probably static
and in extrinsic resources.
Some multimedia may be employed.
|
Rich,
dynamic and context sensitive access to system and/or business logic
and rationale.. May be presented by the system (e.g. Here is the
thinking behind my recommendation...) or invoked. The "thinking" may be
presented via multimedia agents, including video and sound images
presenting content, advice or experience of high level performers.
May provide direct interaction with expert resource via videoconferencing,
audio conferencing, chat lines, Groupware, etc.
|
|
Automates tasks.
|
Most
tasks must be structured by the performer. Proper sequence must be
established and implemented. Some tasks must be performed externally to
the software (e.g. data access, calculations, data manipulation, etc.)
|
Some tasks are automated or the performer can automate them via macros.
Most
task automation relates to data access, transformation and
representation, rather than supporting workflow, thinking and/or human
interaction.
|
High task automation including data, cognitive and judgment tasks. Processing
may be rule or case-based.
Performer needs are anticipated and automatically presented for acceptance or
dismissal or are executed.
|
|
Allow customization
|
One size fits all
displays, interaction modes, task sequence progression established by system
designers. Little or no performer control.
|
Some
customization options, primarily around display settings, keyboard,
menu labels or lower level interaction behavior (e.g. "confirm changes"
before executing).
|
Significant
customization options around displays, task sequences, language and
system behavior. Alternative settings are available from multiple
contexts (e.g. options displays, check boxes within dialog boxes,
layered buttons on displays).
Performers
can change options for the task or document or establish as new
defaults. Settings and options summaries can be accessed for evaluation
and change. Explanations, illustrations or demonstrations of
consequences of alternative summaries are presented as options are
explored. Performers may select among media representations, if
available.
|
|
Provide obvious options, next steps, and resources.
|
Performers must know options, steps and resources in advance or access them
from extrinsic resources prior to task performance.
|
Some options, next steps or resources are displayed in obvious ways within the
interface or via buttons with clear labels.
Some multimedia may be employed.
|
What to do next or available resources are always prominently displayed and are
clear (e.g.
Show me
or
Tell me about
or
Do it...
buttons)
|
|
Employ consistent use of visual conventions, language, visual positioning,
navigation and other system behavior.
|
Labels,
display attributes, positioning or navigation conventions are
inconsistent and possibly in conflict. Expectations cannot be
established based on prior displays/system behavior.
|
Gaps may exist is language, positioning or behavior. System displays conform
largely to platform standards.
|
Once
established, language, navigation, displays, interaction methods and
system behavior are consistent. Performers experience in one context
establishes expectations that are always met in other displays, tasks
or contexts.
|
EPSS: Unlocking Its Potential in Your Organization
Barry Raybould
Ariel Performance Support Engineering, Inc.
Reprinted From
Technical & Skills Training
February/ March 1996
E
lectronic
P
erformance
S
upport
S
ystems
are making inroads into office and manufacturing environments - hot on
the heels of the computer revolution. The author's bullet-by-bullet
account explains how electronic performance support can fulfill
essential computer training needs.
Recent
years have seen an accelerating interest in performance support as an
alternative to traditional training in technical environments. Not
surprisingly, the range of electronic performance support technologies
is broadening in line with the increasing use of computers at home and
work. This article takes a look at the major technologies you should
consider now before embarking on a performance support project, as well
as some examples of these technologies in action.
There are a number of good reasons why a performance support approach is
becoming increasingly attractive. To name a few:
The
American work force is suffering from information overload. Indeed, the
total volume of business information, said to be doubling every two to
three years, is growing exponentially.
The
traditional training approach is not working for many organizations.
Some industry pundits estimate that as much as half of the $50 billion
that American corporations spend on formal training is wasted. A
growing body of educational research concludes that learning is far
more effective when it takes place in context of work. And many
organizations report that only 10 to 15 percent of what employees know
was learned in formal training.
Business
change is accelerating as business process reengineering and the
resulting job redesigns are becoming a regular part of business life.
How
can electronic performance support technologies aid in countering these
prevailing trends? Teamed with the now ubiquitous personal computer,
performance support can do the following:
Reduce
information overload by relying less on long -term memory and more
on-the-job support in the form of tools that help structure the work
and integrate the necessary reference materials. These tools could be
linked to software at a desktop or workstation computer, or be conveyed
by mobile hand-held electronic devices to shop floor workers.
Provide
on-the-job learning experiences using software. By embedding
presentations of key concepts into frequently used software, EPSS can
create a seamless mix of learning and performance.
Increase
organizational learning by providing a mechanism for capturing and
disseminating organizational knowledge. For example, you can create a
database of problems and the resulting solutions developed by technical
support personal or technicians, and use it to spread troubleshooting
expertise throughout the organization.
"Enabling" Technologies
Several
technology trends are making the shift toward performance support
easier to implement. Here are some of the key enabling technologies:
Hypertext:
This technology provides for the electronic linking of information that
provides a flexible approach to disseminating large volumes of
cross-reference material - often called an "information base" in EPSS
terminology. It is particularly useful when combined with such text
retrieval technologies as "key-word" searches (i.e., the author links
important words that the worker may want to use to retrieve some small
chunk of knowledge), or full-text searches (i.e., the EPSS
searches4very word in its information base to match a word typed by the
worker). The new version of Windows '95 integrates both of these
technologies into its help systems. These tools are available to
software developers in order to help build the information bases of an
EPSS. There is also a wide range of other software tools on the market
that provide this capability.
The Internet:
The Internet as a whole and the World Wide Web in particular are
opening up new EPSS opportunities, especially for distribution
organizations made up of field service technicians and company sales
forces. The Web, for all its hype, is not much more than a large
information base, where chunks of information are distributed across
thousands of computers across the world and are available to anyone
with a computer, modem, and an on-line account.
It
is possible, however, to create private information bases that restrict
access to members and customers of your organization, using the same
publishing technologies. Internet publishing is based around a standard
called HTML (hypertext markup language). By using this standard,
organizations can harness electronic data exchange to more easily
distribute an EPSS directly to their customer base. Doing so could, for
example, allow customers to do their own troubleshooting before calling
a service representative.
CD-ROM:
Another way of distributing an EPSS, CD-ROM can be used either as an
alternative to, or in conjunction with, the World Wide Web. CD-ROM
becomes a desirable option when workers don't have access to an
Internet connection or when the information base contains a large
amount of graphics, sound, or video.
Portable Devices:
A steady drop in prices is making portable devices increasingly
affordable. These include laptop and notepad computers as well as
hand-held devices like the Apple Newton. Some of these hand-helds now
have built in CD-ROM with sound - making them an excellent delivery
vehicle for an "on - the - go" EPSS. If you're designing a system now,
the cost of these devices is sure to come down by the time you are
ready to deploy the system, based on the history of price reduction in
these devices.
Intelligent Technologies
An
essential attribute of an EPSS is to augment the human problem-solving
process by automating some of the more routine reasoning processes.
Here are some technologies being used In performance support
applications:
Visual programming languages:
Visual programming languages have made considerable strides over the
past few years. These languages let you build an EPSS using an approach
called "rapid prototyping" in which you iteratively develop the EPSS to
meet workers needs.
Object-oriented languages:
Object-oriented program languages let you build software that behaves more
intelligently.
Rule-based knowledge systems:
This technology lets you present knowledge as a series of "if then"
rules, which the computer will use to help recommend decisions or make
selections. This technology, also known as an "expert system", has been
heavily refined over the past two decades, and there are established
methodologies or building these rule bases.
Case-based reasoning:
This approach involves creating a database of case studies or examples
of problems and their associated solutions. It also provides tools to
search the database to match a current problem with a previous example.
In this way, past history and the accumulated expertise of others in an
organization can be preserved and retrieved to help solve new problems
as they arise.
Neural networks:
This technology helps you analyze patterns in data, and use these patterns to
predict future behavior.
Model-based systems:
These tools let you build a model of a physical system, then use the
model to simulate various scenarios and diagnose problems.
Emerging Methodology
A
recent trend is the establishment of cross-functional groups within
companies to develop performance support systems. Accompanying this
move is a merging of professional disciplines. Among the new titles
appearing on business cards are "performance support specialist",
"performance support developer" and "performance support manager" -
terms that are replacing "instructional designer" or "training
manager."
What
does this signify? An emerging new discipline which I call "performance
support engineering." Here are some of the key characteristics of this
new discipline:
Hybrid Methodology:
Because
the scope of performance support is broad, The methodology for its
development is broader than for many existing disciplines. Performance
support engineering is in fact a hybrid approach that includes elements
of information and systems engineering, computer / human interaction
and interface design, business process reengineering, instructional
systems development, computer based training, human performance
technology, organizational design, knowledge engineering, and technical
writing.
Systems approach:
Just as in software engineering, all parts of the EPSS have to be
designed to work as an integrated whole. These parts include not only
the interface of the EPSS but also the accompanying human performance
system. Indeed, one of the most important steps in designing an EPSS is
to build a systems model of the business from a human performance
perspective.
Iterative software development:
Building an EPSS often calls for writing custom software - except in
the simplest systems where an off-the-shelf "shell" will suffice. The
best software development approach is an iterative one that starts with
a prototype and is continually refined to achieve a final systems
design - preferably with in put from the workers who will eventually
use the system.
Knowledge focus:
Traditional software engineering has a strong data focus. Much of the
power of performance support arises from its focus on knowledge. Key
components of a performance support system, therefore, are a system and
set of processes to manage the capture and dissemination of knowledge -
often referred to as a knowledge management system.
Identifying Opportunities
How
do you identify opportunities in your organization for electronic
performance support? Here are four things to look for, each of which
presents a major opportunity for EPSS:
Performance Problem:
Is there a performance problem in your organization? Is there a gap
between the best and worst job performers? Do employees at different
locations have different degrees of access to knowledge? Are training
courses and documentation not improving performance enough? Are
employees suffering from information overload? Are employee turnover or
fast changing job requirements resulting in inadequate performance
levels? A "yes"" to any of these would indicate an opportunity for EPSS
to help improve performance.
Business reengineering project:
Is your company involved in a business reengineering project? If so,
and you're not already designing performance support into your new
business processes, you risk losing a major competitive advantage. Get
a performance support engineer involved in the reengineering team,
identify key knowledge assets in the business, and engineer the
business processes to leverage those knowledge assets using a
performance-centered design approach.
Computer - based training project:
Are you building computer - based training (CBT) or multimedia - based
training? If you are, have you considered the benefits of integrating
the CBT into a performance support framework? Doing so gives you a
double benefit: You can use the training modules you build both as a
learning tool and as a reference tool.
On - line documentation / CD-ROM:
Are
you putting documentation on-line (e.g., on the Web) or planning to
distribute it on CD-ROM? If you are, consider restructuring the
documentation in the form of a performance support system. Reading
documentation on-line is 30 percent slower than on paper, so if you
don't tailor it to electronic media you risk making the performance
problem worse, not better. Using hypertext, intelligent technologies,
and visual programming language, you can turn your documentation into a
much more powerful performance support system.
What Drives Software Development?
by Gloria Gery
A Comparison of Large Scale Systems and Consumer Software Development
The Need:
The
assumptions underlying large scale software development are implicit
and are rarely questioned. Those underlying assumptions drive
development and design, including definition of the performer
population and description of their work context. The assumptions must
be made explicit so they can be discussed and either validated or
changed.
The Chart:
The
assumptions underlying consumer software development are quite
different. And because those assumptions are so different, they drive a
different design and development process. What Drives Software
Development? A Comparison of Consumer vs. Large Scale Systems
Development is designed to make these two differing sets of assumptions
explicit so they can be compared and contrasted as part of the
specification development process. The drivers for consumer software
need to be adopted by large scale systems developers to improve the
quality and power of software developed for organizational use.
Using the Chart:
Use
the chart or components in proposals, functional specifications and
presentations advocating performance centered design. Force open
discussion about the design assumptions.
Rule of Thumb:
Developers
and sponsors of new systems development have given little thought to
these underlying assumptions and thinking in new ways must be
facilitated.
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Points of Comparison
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Large Scale Systems
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Consumer Software
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Assumptions about users' and workplace knowledge:
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Users will know the work and related concepts the software will be part of or
support
Knowledgeable people will be available
Users will be trained prior to software use
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Users will know limited interface conventions (e.g. use of buttons)
Users will not know content or task
Knowledgeable people unavailable
Training is unlikely
|
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Development priorities:
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Bug free code.
High integrity data
Accurate data transformation
Machine performance.
Matched to contracted client specifications (i.e. the client who pays the
development or acquisition bills).
Architectural compatibility.
Operational performance.
On-time delivery.
Delivery within budget
System maintainability
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